Paul Ekman - Handbook of cognition and emotion (Facial expressions).pdf

"The argument about whether facial expressions of emotion are universal or culture-specific goes
back more than 100 years. For most of that time the evidence was sparse, but in the last 30 years
there have been many research studies. That has not served to convince everyone, but it has
sharpened the argument. I will review the different kinds of evidence that support universals in
expression and cultural differences. I will present eight challenges to that evidence, and how
those challenges have been met by proponents of universality. I conducted some of this research
and have been active in answering the challenges, so I am not a disinterested commentator, but
probably no-one is. I will try to present the evidence and counter-arguments as fairly as I can, so
that readers can make up their own minds."